Abstract
Tumors can exploit the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) pathway to create an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Activated IDO1 metabolizes tryptophan into immunosuppressive kynurenine, leading to suppressed effector T-cell (Teff) proliferation, allowing for tumor escape from host immune surveillance. IDO1 inhibition counteracts this immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and may improve cancer outcomes, particularly when combined with other immunotherapies. Linrodostat mesylate (linrodostat) is a potent, selective oral IDO1 inhibitor that occupies the heme cofactor–binding site to prevent further IDO1 activation and is currently in multiple clinical trials for treatment of patients with advanced cancers. Here, we assess the in vitro potency, in vivo pharmacodynamic (PD) activity, and preclinical pharmacokinetics (PKs) of linrodostat. Linrodostat exhibited potent cellular activity, suppressing kynurenine production in HEK293 cells overexpressing human IDO1 and HeLa cells stimulated with IFNγ, with no activity against tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase or murine indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 2 detected. Linrodostat restored T-cell proliferation in a mixed-lymphocyte reaction of T cells and allogeneic IDO1-expressing dendritic cells. In vivo, linrodostat reduced kynurenine levels in human tumor xenograft models, exhibiting significant PD activity. Linrodostat demonstrated a PK/PD relationship in the xenograft model, preclinical species, and samples from patients with advanced cancers, with high oral bioavailability in preclinical species and low to moderate systemic clearance. Our data demonstrate that linrodostat potently and specifically inhibits IDO1 to block an immunosuppressive mechanism that could be responsible for tumor escape from host immune surveillance with favorable PK/PD characteristics that support clinical development.
This article is featured in Highlights of This Issue, p. 453
Introduction
The indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) pathway is endogenous and often co-opted by tumors to induce tolerance to tumor antigens; therefore, IDO1 represents an attractive antitumor target (1). Using a ferrous-heme cofactor (2), IDO1 metabolizes the essential amino acid tryptophan to produce N-formyl-kynurenine, which is the first and rate-limiting step leading to production of immunosuppressive kynurenine and downstream metabolites (3). Cells expressing IDO1 inactivate surrounding immune cells with combined effects of low tryptophan and high kynurenine concentrations (1, 2). These high levels of immunosuppressive kynurenine activate regulatory T cells (Tregs; ref. 1), which suppress effector T-cell (Teff) function (4). Under normal conditions, IDO1 expressed by antigen-presenting cells depletes tryptophan and suppresses Teff proliferation to ensure that the immune system does not overrespond to threats (3–6). Although IDO1's precise role in immune tolerance in normal physiology is not fully understood, placental IDO1 is believed to play a role in maternal tolerance to allogeneic fetuses by suppressing T-cell activity (7). IDO1 is expressed in dendritic cells (DCs; ref. 8) and macrophages (9), and high IDO1 expression is associated with decreased intratumoral immune cell tumor infiltration and could increase regulatory T-cell numbers during the late phase of the inflammatory response by recruitment or conversion (6, 10). During this phase, proinflammatory mediators such as IFNγ and endotoxins strongly induce IDO1, and immunosuppressive IDO1 may contribute to the physiologic feedback control of the immune response (3, 8).
Upregulation of IDO1 expression has been reported in human tumors (10–12) and is associated with poor prognosis, increased progression, and reduced survival (11, 13, 14). IDO1 is upregulated by IFNγ (4), and IDO1 inhibition potentially increases Teff function (6, 15). Linrodostat is a small molecule that effectively and selectively inhibits IDO1, preventing metabolism of tryptophan into immunosuppressive kynurenine (2) to reduce tumor and serum kynurenine levels (16, 17). The heme in IDO1 is unusually labile, and linrodostat inhibits IDO1 by binding to the heme-free (apo) form of the enzyme (2). Apo-IDO1 is a physiologically relevant target that can be detected in cells and activated upon addition of exogenous heme (2). X-ray crystal structures of inhibitor–enzyme complexes confirmed that binding of linrodostat to the heme-binding site of IDO1 prevents binding of the heme cofactor required for activity (2). Therefore, heme lability plays an important role in posttranslational regulation of IDO1, and apo-IDO1 serves as a unique target for enzyme inhibition (2).
As single agents, the IDO1 inhibitors indoximod and epacadostat have demonstrated limited clinical activity in patients with advanced cancer, with best response being stable disease (18, 19). However, preclinical data demonstrate promising results with IDO1 inhibitors in combination with chemotherapy (20). Tumors exploit the IDO1 pathway to promote an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment that may limit the efficacy of agents such as nivolumab [anti–programmed death receptor-1 (PD-1)] and ipilimumab [anticytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated protein 4 (CTLA-4); ref. 6]. Targeting these immunosuppressive properties via concurrent IDO1 inhibition and PD-1 pathway blockade may have synergistic antitumor effects (4).
Furthermore, in single-arm, solid-tumor cohorts, higher numerical response rates were observed with anti–PD-1 therapy (e.g., nivolumab, pembrolizumab) + IDO1 inhibition than historical response rates with anti–PD-1 therapy alone (21, 22), suggesting that IDO1 inhibition + nivolumab could extend treatment options. Results from a phase III trial determined that pembrolizumab + epacadostat did not increase efficacy in patients with advanced melanoma not previously treated with PD-1/PD-L1 checkpoint inhibitors (23). Conclusive data from additional pivotal, randomized trials in other tumor types (e.g., bladder cancer) are not available. Identifying predictive biomarkers that can be applied to select patients who may benefit from specific immunotherapy combinations with IDO1 inhibitors, particularly in combination with nivolumab and/or ipilimumab, may be critical to increase durable responses and patient survival. Linrodostat is being evaluated in combination with other immunotherapies, including nivolumab and/or ipilimumab, in multiple clinical trials for cancers such as early and metastatic bladder cancer (21, 24–31). Here, we further characterize the potency, selectivity, and inhibition kinetics of linrodostat and present in vitro functional activity, in vivo pharmacodynamic (PD) activity, preclinical pharmacokinetics (PKs), and clinical PD properties of linrodostat from a phase I/II study in patients with advanced cancers (NCT02658890/CA017003; ref. 16).
Materials and Methods
Additional details can be found in the Supplementary Materials and Methods.
Half maximal inhibitory concentration in cell-based assays
All cell lines used in the study were routinely tested for mycoplasma, and passages were tracked per standard protocols. HEK293 cells overexpressing human IDO1, human TDO, murine Ido1, or murine Ido2 were seeded using RPMI phenol red–free media containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Linrodostat was prepared as previously described in Patent Cooperation Treaty Int Appl WO 2016073774 (example 19; refs. 32, 33). Linrodostat (100 nL; 10 μmol/L–10 pmol/L) was added, and cells were incubated for 20 hours at 37°C in 5% CO2. HeLa or M109 cells were seeded using RPMI phenol red–free media containing 10% FBS. Linrodostat (50 μL; 10 μmol/L–10 pmol/L) was added, and cells were incubated at 37°C for 2 hours. Recombinant human IFNγ (R&D Systems, No. 285-IF; final concentration, 10 ng/mL) or recombinant murine IFNγ (PeproTech, No. 315-05; final concentration, 5 ng/mL) was added to induce IDO1. Cells were incubated for 18 hours at 37°C in 5% CO2. Treatment was stopped, and IC50 values were calculated.
Reversibility of IDO1 inhibition by linrodostat in SKOV3 cells
IDO1 inhibition
SKOV3 human ovarian cancer cells (ATCCs) were treated with media containing 1 mmol/L tryptophan, 50 μmol/L succinylacetone, and 50 ng/mL human IFNγ (PeproTech) to induce IDO1 synthesis, and either vehicle (DMSO), linrodostat, or epacadostat (Incyte) at 10, 50, or 100 nmol/L for 72 hours. Kynurenine levels were measured with the Ehrlich colorimetric assay. Colorimetric changes were detected with a plate reader (490 nm). Kynurenine concentrations were determined from kynurenine standard curves.
Reversal of IDO1 inhibition
SKOV3 cells were treated with 5 μg/mL cycloheximide to prevent further IDO1 synthesis and incubated with 50 μmol/L succinylacetone. Media were replaced with media containing 1 mmol/L tryptophan, 50 μmol/L succinylacetone, and 5 μg/mL cycloheximide, and duplicates were treated with vehicle (DMSO) or 10 μmol/L heme. Kynurenine levels were measured as described above at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 hours.
Aryl hydrocarbon receptor assay
The Human AhR Reporter Assay System (96-well format; Indigo Biosciences, IB06001) was used according to the manufacturer's instructions. Reporter cells dispensed into a 96-well plate were immediately dosed with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD; 1 or 10 nmol/L), kynurenine (1 or 10 μmol/L), or linrodostat (1 or 10 μmol/L). After 22 to 24 hours' incubation, media were removed, and luciferase detection reagent (100 μL) was added. After approximately 5 minutes, luciferase activity was detected per well using a plate-reading luminometer.
Analysis of plasma tryptophan and kynurenine in human whole blood
Human whole-blood incubation and stimulation
Human venous whole blood (45 μL/well) from healthy donors was preincubated with compounds for 4 hours at 37°C in 5% CO2. Blood was stimulated with human IFNγ (final concentration, 50 ng/mL) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS; final concentration, 5 μg/mL) diluted in RPMI 1640 (Thermo Fisher Scientific) for 18 hours at 37°C in 5% CO2. Plasma samples were liberated by centrifugation (2,300 rpm for 5 minutes), and tryptophan and kynurenine concentrations were analyzed using RapidFire mass spectrometry (MS; Agilent) as described below.
RapidFire MS
Plasma samples (10 μL) were diluted with Dulbecco's PBS (45 μL) containing BSA and an internal-standard (IS) l-kynurenine sulfate (RING-D4, 3,3-D2; Sigma-Aldrich) in a 384-well REMP plate (Brooks); trichloroacetic acid (40% w/v; 5 μL) was added. After dilution, shaking, and centrifugation, supernatant was transferred to a new, 384-well REMP plate for analyses with a RapidFire 300 MS system connected to a Sciex API 4000 QTRAP mass spectrometer. The mobile phase flow rate was 1.5 mL/min. After sample elution, the mobile phase (acetonitrile with 0.01% formic acid) moved the samples (flow rate, 1.25 mL/min) to the mass spectrometer, which was equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source. Generation of standard curves and calculations of compound IC50 values are described in the Supplementary Materials and Methods.
Restoration of human T-cell proliferation in the presence of tolerogenic DCs in a mixed-lymphocyte reaction
To differentiate monocytes (BioIVT; 1 × 106 cells/mL) into immature DCs, CD14+ monocytes were cultured for 7 days in RPMI 1640 with 10% FBS, 100 ng/mL GM-CSF (PeproTech), and 200 ng/mL IL4 (PeproTech) as previously described (12). Medium and cytokines were replaced after 72 hours. Cells were then cultured in a maturation cocktail [TNFα (20 ng/mL), IL1β (10 ng/mL), IL6 (25 ng/mL), and prostaglandin E2 (5 μmol/L); NewLink Genetics] for 48 hours. Mature DCs (mDCs) were added to 96-well plates (2 × 105 cells/50-μL RPMI 1640/10% FBS) and confirmed with CD86, CD83, and CD209 expression.
Compounds were dissolved in DMSO, serially diluted in 50-μL culture medium [RPMI 1640 (GIBCO/Thermo Fisher Scientific) with 10% FBS], and added to mDCs for a 2-hour preincubation. Equilibrated CD3+ T cells (BioIVT; 2 × 105/50 μL) were cultured in RPMI-1640 with 10% FBS before being added to mDCs (1:1 ratio) ± 40% human serum. Compound solution (50 μL) was added for a total volume of 200 μL/well (96-well plate). Plates were incubated for 4 days and pulsed with 3H-thymidine (4 μCi/mL) for 18 hours to determine T-cell proliferation over the 5-day incubation. For cytokine determination, 50 μL of medium was harvested on day 4.
Analysis of kynurenine reduction in SKOV3 tumors
Human SKOV3 xenograft tumor model
All animal procedures were approved by the Bristol Myers Squibb Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. The animal care and use program is fully accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International. Female nu/nu mice (7–12 weeks old; Envigo) received food and water ad libitum and were maintained in a controlled environment according to Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International regulations. SKOV3 cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 with 10% FBS and were harvested in the log growth phase (6 × 107 cells/mL in Hank's balanced salt solution), mixed 1:1 with Matrigel (BD Biosciences), and s.c. implanted into the mouse flank (0.1 mL or 3 × 106 cells/mouse). After implantation (15 days), tumor volumes were measured, and tumor-bearing mice were randomized (five animals/group). Linrodostat was formulated as a solution in the vehicle ethanol/polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400/propylene glycol/d-α-tocopheryl PEG 1000 succinate (volume ratio, 5:55:20:20). Each group was orally administered a vehicle, linrodostat (5, 25, or 125 mg/kg once a day), or epacadostat (30 or 100 mg/kg twice daily), for 5 days. Tumor volumes were measured before tumors were snap frozen. Sera were harvested (day 5) at designated times after dosing to quantify kynurenine and compound levels.
Mass spectrometry
Frozen tumor samples were homogenized in four volumes of ice-cold Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS) containing 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) using TissueLyser II (QIAGEN; 30 Hz/second). Kynurenine levels were assessed with liquid chromatography (LC; Waters ACQUITY Ultra Performance LC System) interfaced to a PE Sciex API 4000 QTRAP tandem mass spectrometer equipped with a turbo-electrospray interface operating in the positive ionization mode. Analyses of kynurenine, tryptophan, and linrodostat were conducted against each standard curve.
PK/PD analyses
PK/PD parameters of linrodostat were obtained by noncompartmental analysis of serum or tumor concentration versus time data (Phoenix 6.3.0.395; Certara). The area under the concentration–time curve over 24 hours for serum/tumor linrodostat concentrations (AUEC0–24) was calculated using a combination of linear-log trapezoidal method. The AUEC0–24 for serum/tumor kynurenine concentrations was calculated using the linear-log trapezoidal method. The area under the effect curve (AUEC) for kynurenine reduction (%) was calculated as follows:
Single-dose PK in rats, dogs, and monkeys
Male Sprague-Dawley rats, dogs, and cynomolgus monkeys were fasted overnight prior to oral dosing. For rats and monkeys, drug was formulated in PEG 400/water (70:30) at ratios previously described. For dogs, drug was formulated in 31.6% N,N-dimethylacetamide, 31.6% propylene glycol, 36.8% water, and 1% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose in water.
To obtain plasma, blood samples were centrifuged at 4°C (2,000 × g for 10 minutes) within 15 minutes of sample collection. Sample preparation was conducted on a MultiPROBE-automated liquid handler (Packard BioScience) or Quadra-96–automated liquid handler (TOMTEC). The acidified biological matrix (25 μL) was treated with 50-μL acetonitrile (IS and [13C6] linrodostat, 0.2 μmol/L). Samples were centrifuged (2,000 × g for 8 minutes), and supernatants were transferred to autosampler vials or a 96-well plate.
MS
For LC with tandem MS (LC-MS/MS-)-based analysis of oral administration studies, plasma sample (20 μL) was added to 200-μL IS (dexamethasone 40 ng/mL in acetonitrile); for intravenous (IV) administration studies, plasma sample (30 μL) was added to 150-μL IS. Samples were vortexed for 5 minutes and centrifuged (5,800 rpm for 10 minutes). The mixture (1 μL) was injected into LC-MS/MS [LCMSMS-018 (Sciex API 5500, triple quadrupole)]. MS conditions included positive ion ESI; multiple reaction monitoring detection; linrodostat: [M+H]+ m/z 411.10 > 148.10; and dexamethasone: [M+H]+ m/z 393.30 > 373.10.
PK analyses
PK parameters were determined by a noncompartmental model of analysis of plasma concentration versus time data using Phoenix 6.3.0.395. AUCs from time zero to last sampling time (AUC0-T) and time zero to infinity (AUCINF) were calculated using the linear-log trapezoidal method. The total plasma clearance (CLTp), steady-state volume of distribution (Vss), and apparent elimination half-life (t1/2) were estimated after IV administration. t1/2 estimations were calculated at ≥ 3 time points. The total blood clearance (CLTb) was calculated as the CLTp divided by the blood-to-plasma concentration ratio. The absolute oral bioavailability (F) was estimated as the ratio of dose-normalized AUCs following oral and IV doses.
PD analyses in samples from patients with advanced cancers
Analysis of l-tryptophan and l-kynurenine in serum and tissue biopsies was conducted with a validated LC-MS/MS method. Surrogate matrices of 5% BSA in PBS validated the assay in human serum, and T-PER tissue protein extraction reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific) validated the assay in tumor biopsy homogenates. A matrix aliquot (50 μL) was fortified with stable labeled isotope [deuterated DL-tryptophan (tryptophan-D8) and deuterated L-kynurenine (kynurenine-D6)] IS. Analytes were isolated through protein precipitation. Supernatant was transferred and evaporated, and the residue was reconstituted with acidified water. Each processed sample was injected into the UHPLC system (Shimadzu Scientific). An Acquity UPLC High-Strength Silica T3 column (Waters; 3.0 × 100 mm; 1.8-μm particle size) was used for analyses. Chromatographic separation was performed using a linear gradient elution prior to MS detection of ions. The mass spectrometer (AB Sciex Triple Quad 6500) was operated in positive ESI and in multiple reaction monitoring modes to detect the transition ions of m/z 205 > 118 for tryptophan, m/z 209 > 118 for kynurenine, m/z 213 > 123 for tryptophan-D8, and m/z 215 > 124 for kynurenine-D6. A linear, 1/concentration²-weighted, least-squares regression algorithm quantitated unknown samples. The protocol and amendments for this trial were approved by the Institutional Review Board or independent ethics committee of each participating institution. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and Good Clinical Practice, as defined by the International Conference on Harmonisation. All patients provided written informed consent prior to enrollment.
Results
Potency and selectivity of linrodostat-mediated IDO1 inhibition in cell-based assays
IDO1 catalyzes the conversion of tryptophan to N-formyl-kynurenine in the first, rate-limiting step of the tryptophan metabolism pathway that leads to production of kynurenine and downstream metabolites. After the initial crystal structures of IDO1 in complex with the heme ligands 4-phenylimidazole and cyanide were determined (34), several groups applied this information to systematically identify and optimize novel IDO1 inhibitors (35, 36). Once inhibitors, such as linrodostat or epacadostat (Fig. 1A), have been identified, potency can be assessed by monitoring tryptophan and kynurenine levels. Although tryptophan-to-kynurenine degradation can be monitored in cell-free systems, such systems are complicated by the tendency of active ferrous-heme IDO1 to oxidize to inactive ferric-heme IDO1 (2), requiring incorporation of a compatible reductant into the assay. Therefore, to determine the potency of linrodostat in a more physiologically relevant system, we assessed kynurenine production with cellular assays. As IDO1 activity is low in many cells, HEK293 or M109 cells overexpressing human IDO1 were used to assess potency of prospective IDO1 inhibitors. Linrodostat demonstrated biological activity in these cellular assays. Similar biological activity was detected in HeLa cells stimulated with IFNγ, another method to induce IDO1. In these assays, linrodostat suppressed kynurenine production, with IC50 values of 1.1 and 1.7 nmol/L in IDO1-overexpressing HEK293 cells and IFNγ-stimulated HeLa cells, respectively (Fig. 1B). To assess linrodostat selectivity, kynurenine levels were also evaluated in HEK293 cells overexpressing TDO2, an enzyme that also catalyzes the first step of tryptophan-to-kynurenine conversion (6, 20), and HEK293 cells overexpressing murine IDO1 or IDO2. These results demonstrate that linrodostat is a selective IDO1 inhibitor with no activity detected against murine IDO2 or human TDO2. Linrodostat also exhibited greater potency against human IDO1 than murine IDO1. On the basis of these in vitro assays and published data for other IDO inhibitors (36, 37), linrodostat appears to be a potent inhibitor of human IDO1.
Linrodostat inhibits IDO1 in cells and in human whole blood. A, Linrodostat and epacadostat chemical structures. B, IC50 of linrodostat was assessed in human and murine cell lines expressing IDO1, Ido2, and TDO as indicated (Human: HeLa, n = 59; HEK293 expressing human IDO1, n = 22; HEK293 expressing human TDO, n = 21. Mouse: M109, n = 60; HEK293 expressing murine Ido1, n = 22; HEK293 expressing murine Ido2, n = 2). C, Kynurenine levels were measured over 72 hours in SKOV3 cells stimulated with IFNγ in the presence of SA (50 μmol/L) and tryptophan (1 mmol/L) and DMSO, linrodostat, or epacadostat (n = 2). D, Recovery of kynurenine production was monitored after washout and treatment with cycloheximide, SA, and heme in cells previously treated with linrodostat or vehicle (n = 2). E, Inhibition of kynurenine production in human whole blood was assessed after linrodostat treatment (n = 8). Bars, SE. OD490, optical density 490; SA, succinylacetone.
Reversibility of IDO1 inhibition in SKOV3 cells after linrodostat treatment
Due to the unique mechanism of action by which linrodostat binds apo-IDO1 (2), we wanted to characterize the reversibility of cellular IDO1 inhibition after linrodostat treatment. In the basal state, SKOV3 cells produce low amounts of kynurenine via IDO1 metabolism of tryptophan; however, IFNγ treatment substantially induces IDO1 above basal levels, leading to increased kynurenine production. In vitro IFNγ treatment mimics the clinical experience with linrodostat + nivolumab, which increases IFNγ levels in patients (4, 6, 30). SKOV3 cells were also selected for these experiments because these cells can be assessed in xenograft studies, allowing comparison of kynurenine dynamics in vitro and in vivo. Succinylacetone inhibits heme biosynthesis through inhibition of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase, the first enzyme in the heme biosynthesis pathway (38, 39). To model kynurenine production in the presence of basal levels of heme-bound IDO1 (holo-IDO1), SKOV3 cells were stimulated with IFNγ in the presence of the heme biosynthesis inhibitor succinylacetone (50 μmol/L) and tryptophan (1 mmol/L), and kynurenine levels were measured over 72 hours (Fig. 1C). Under these conditions, newly synthesized IDO1 brought about by IFNγ induction is produced in the absence of new heme synthesis and is expected to be predominantly in its apo form; therefore, kynurenine should be produced only by the basal levels of holo-IDO1. Repeating these experimental conditions in the presence of linrodostat or vehicle control demonstrated that basal kynurenine production was completely inhibited by linrodostat at 50 and 100 nmol/L but only partially at 10 nmol/L (Fig. 1C). Furthermore, linrodostat demonstrated IDO1 inhibition at 50 and 100 nmol/L, with comparable inhibition versus epacadostat at 10 nmol/L. These results, along with the reported inhibitory mechanism of linrodostat (2), suggest that linrodostat binds basal apo-IDO1.
To assess the reversibility of kynurenine production after linrodostat treatment, cells were washed to remove IFNγ and linrodostat or vehicle. Cells were then treated with cycloheximide to inhibit translation of new IDO1 and succinylacetone to maintain inhibition of heme biosynthesis. To enable restoration of active IDO1, heme was added, and the recovery of kynurenine production was monitored. Kynurenine production recovered over several hours after heme was added to vehicle-treated cells (Fig. 1D). IDO1 activity only gradually increased in cells that were initially treated with vehicle, likely due to slow heme uptake into cells. Kynurenine recovery was delayed in cells that were treated with linrodostat compared with cells treated with vehicle. However, substantial IDO1 activity was detected 10 hours after washout, indicating replacement of linrodostat bound to apo-IDO1 with exogenous heme and confirming reversibility of linrodostat inhibition.
Linrodostat and kynurenine production in human whole blood
To extend these in vitro studies, we sought to determine the ability of linrodostat to inhibit kynurenine production in human whole blood. Because IFNγ + LPS has been used to stimulate maximum IDO1 induction in DCs (40), we incubated whole-blood samples with LPS and IFNγ before linrodostat treatment. We observed potent inhibition of kynurenine production with linrodostat in these human whole-blood assays, with a median detected IC50 of 9.4 nmol/L [range, 1.2–42 nmol/L; Fig. 1E; epacadostat, 163 nmol/L (range, 54–207 nmol/L)]. As expected, some donor-to-donor variability was observed. Importantly, these human whole-blood assays extend our in vitro findings by assessing linrodostat activity in a more heterogeneous, physiologically relevant environment than cell-culture models and may detect complex protein-binding effects not observed in vitro.
Linrodostat and aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation
Kynurenine activates the transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) to induce naïve T-cell polarization, generating immunosuppressive Tregs (41, 42). Paradoxically, the highly promiscuous AhR can also be activated by clinical IDO1 pathway inhibitors, including indoximod (42, 43). Thus, it was of interest to determine whether linrodostat similarly activated AhR. AhR activation is often measured using reporter assays that detect changes in expression of AhR-driven genes after compound administration (41). To assess whether linrodostat affects AhR, we used a sensitive luciferase reporter assay. The classic AhR activator TCDD (43) yielded 42- and 124-fold increases in luciferase activity at 1- and 10-nmol/L concentrations, respectively, demonstrating AhR activation. Kynurenine increased luciferase activity in a dose-dependent manner, producing 3.6- and 4.9-fold increases in luciferase activity at concentrations of 1 and 10 μmol/L, respectively (Fig. 2). Linrodostat did not increase luciferase activity at 1- or 10-μmol/L concentrations. It should be noted that this assay was conducted in the absence of serum, and because serum is expected to lower the free fraction in vivo, our in vitro results could overestimate the potency of linrodostat to induce AhR in vivo.
Linrodostat does not activate AhR. AhR activation was assessed after vehicle, TCDD, kynurenine, or linrodostat treatment using a luciferase-based assay (n = 3 technical triplicate samples). Bars, SD.
Effects of linrodostat treatment on T-cell proliferation with mixed-lymphocyte reaction
IDO1 is thought to suppress antitumor immune responses partly by inhibiting T-cell function through local depletion of tryptophan (40). We therefore sought to determine linrodostat's ability to relieve T-cell proliferation inhibition by DCs matured with TNFα/IL1β/IL6/PGE2, which produce IDO1-expressing mDCs (12), in a mixed-lymphocyte reaction (MLR). To reflect the in vivo situation, where nonspecific protein binding of the drug reduces the amount of drug accessible to target, we performed these assays in the presence of 40% human serum. As shown in Fig. 3, linrodostat relieved the inhibition of T-cell proliferation and reduced kynurenine levels in this MLR with an IC50 ranging from 1 to 7 nmol/L.
Linrodostat restores T-cell proliferation and reduces kynurenine levels in an MLR. A, T-cell proliferation was assessed in a human DC MLR after linrodostat, linrodostat + 40% HS, DMSO, and DMSO + 40% HS (n = 6 biological samples). B, T-cell proliferation and kynurenine levels were assessed in a human DC MLR after linrodostat treatment (n = 3). Bars, SE. CPM, counts per million; HS, human serum.
Linrodostat PK/PD profile in human SKOV3 xenografts
Next, we assessed PK/PD properties of linrodostat using SKOV3 cells in a mouse xenograft model. Dose-dependent PD activity of linrodostat was assessed by measuring serum and intratumoral kynurenine levels with dosing once a day at 5, 25, or 125 mg/kg (Supplementary Table S1; PK reported as AUC0–24, μmol/L × h). AUEC measurements for the percent kynurenine reduction in linrodostat-treated tumors were 60%, 63%, and 76% at 5, 25, and 125 mg/kg, respectively, demonstrating dose-dependent PD activity in tumors. Of the time points assessed, maximal PD effects (96% kynurenine reduction) were observed at 6 hours after treatment (Fig. 4A). Reduced kynurenine levels (≥ 30%) were maintained 24 hours after the last dose of 10 mg/kg linrodostat and 100 mg/kg epacadostat. Derived from these PK/PD analyses, the in vivo median IC50 of linrodostat was 3.4 nmol/L in serum from SKOV3 tumors, which was similar to the in vitro median IC50 of 9.4 nmol/L in human whole blood (Fig. 4B). We also examined the potency of another IDO1 inhibitor, epacadostat, and detected a median IC50 of 227- and 163 nmol/L potency in vivo and in vitro, respectively (Fig. 4C). These data demonstrate that linrodostat shows single-digit nanomolar potency.
Linrodostat PD in a SKOV3 xenograft model. A, Kynurenine levels were assessed over time in SKOV3 tumors treated with vehicle once a day × 5 days, linrodostat at 1, 3, or 10 mg/kg once a day × 5 days, or epacadostat 30 or 100 mg/kg once a day × 5 days (n = 12 mice per dose group). Kynurenine levels were assessed in SKOV3 tumors treated with linrodostat (B) or epacadostat (C). IC50 values from SKOV3 tumors and hWB are indicated below graphs. Curves fitted with a fixed Hill slope; IC50 = median (minimum–maximum). Bars, SE. hWB, human whole blood.
Linrodostat PK profile in vivo
To extend these SKOV3 xenograft studies, we assessed PK parameters of IV and oral linrodostat in higher species including rat, dog, and monkey (Table 1). After IV administration, the CLTp of linrodostat was comparable across species, with levels of 27, 25, and 19 mL/min/kg in rats, dogs, and monkeys, respectively. The CLTp were ≤ 48% of the respective reported liver blood flows, indicating that linrodostat has low-to-moderate systemic clearance. After IV administration, Vss values in rats, dogs, and monkeys were 3.8, 5.7, and 4.1 L/kg, respectively, indicating extravascular distribution. The t1/2 of linrodostat was 3.9, 4.7, and 6.6 hours in rats, dogs, and monkeys, respectively. After oral administration, the Tmax ranged from 0.5 to 1.7 hours in rats, dogs, and monkeys. The absolute oral bioavailability of linrodostat given as a solution was 64%, 39%, and 10% in rats, dogs, and monkeys, respectively. The rate of linrodostat metabolism by hepatocytes was higher in rats than dogs, monkeys, and humans. Based on the in vitro–in vivo correlation of hepatocyte clearance in animal species, clearance in humans is projected to be moderate. These data lead to a projected human t1/2 of 23 hours (15), supporting dosing once a day in a clinical setting.
Linrodostat ADME and PK profile.
To extend these preclinical, in vivo PD/PK studies, we assessed kynurenine PD with linrodostat + nivolumab treatment in patients with advanced cancers (17, 27). Substantial decreases in mean serum kynurenine levels were detected at all linrodostat doses evaluated, with an approximately 60% reduction observed with 100 and 200 mg once a day (Fig. 5A and B). Furthermore, pre- and on-treatment tumor samples from 13 patients demonstrated that intratumoral kynurenine levels were reduced across all doses following treatment, even in the presence of relatively high pretreatment kynurenine levels (Fig. 5C). These results demonstrate that linrodostat + nivolumab leads to substantial reductions in serum and intratumoral kynurenine levels.
Kynurenine levels in patient serum and tumor samples. A, Serum kynurenine levels were assessed in patients after treatment with linrodostat 100 mg (left; n = 10) or 200 mg (right; n = 11). B, Percent change in kynurenine levels was assessed in patients treated with linrodostat (25 mg dose, n = 6; 50 mg dose, n = 8; 100 mg dose, n = 10; 200-mg dose, n = 11). C, Kynurenine levels were evaluated from paired pre- and on-treatment patient tumor samples (n = 13). Bars, SD from the mean. aPatient's on-treatment kynurenine levels were less than the lower limit of quantification.
Discussion
We assessed the enzyme-inhibitory mechanism, in vitro potency, and in vivo PD activity of the IDO1 inhibitor linrodostat, which is being evaluated in multiple clinical trials in patients with advanced cancers (16, 27, 28, 31, 44, 45). Linrodostat demonstrated limited off-target effects with no inhibitory activity detected against murine IDO2 or human TDO2. Linrodostat is a potent IDO1 inhibitor with promising PK profiles observed in multiple preclinical models supporting dosing once a day in a clinical setting. Furthermore, the 100-mg phase III dose rapidly reduced kynurenine in patients in advanced cancers (17). These results warrant further study of whether linrodostat in combination with immuno-oncology (I-O) therapies could extend treatment options for patients.
Linrodostat has a unique mechanism of action that effectively and specifically inhibits IDO1 by targeting the unbound, heme-free form, which is a physiologically relevant target (2). Importantly, the studies reported here establish that linrodostat's inhibition of IDO1 in cells through competition with heme for apo-IDO1 is a reversible process. In our analyses, linrodostat potently suppressed kynurenine production in human IDO1–overexpressing HEK293 cells, IFNγ-stimulated HeLa cells, and whole-blood assays after IFNγ and succinylacetone treatment. Our results and published IDO1 inhibitor data (36) suggest that the differences in potency of linrodostat versus epacadostat (in vivo IC50, 3.4 and 227 nmol/L, respectively) could be from divergent mechanisms of action, as linrodostat targets apo-IDO1, whereas epacadostat targets holo-IDO1.
Previous work demonstrated that IDO1 inhibition affects T-cell stimulation, including attenuating conversion into CD4+ Tregs and increasing tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells and IFNγ production, which could result in more efficient priming of T cells (4, 40, 46). Similarly, the IDO1 inhibitor epacadostat stimulated CD8+ antigen-specific T-cell lines through IDO1 inhibition in vitro, with dose-dependent increases in IFNγ, GM-CSF, IL8, and TNFα levels detected after tumor T-cell stimulation of epacadostat-treated DCs (40). To extend these studies, we assessed whether linrodostat treatment could modulate T-cell proliferation after inhibition by tolerogenic DCs. Consistent with previous studies (46), we observed that linrodostat treatment potently restored T-cell proliferation in this MLR, demonstrating that linrodostat affects functional phenotypes in vitro.
Overall, these preclinical results complement early clinical data demonstrating that linrodostat + nivolumab is well tolerated, with preliminary evidence of antitumor activity detected (17), including in patients with advanced bladder cancer (21, 30). Data reported here are supported by clinical PK/PD data in samples from patients with select advanced cancers, including bladder cancer, treated in the first-in-human, phase I/IIa study of linrodostat + nivolumab (17, 31). At all doses examined, linrodostat exhibited PD activity, defined by inhibition of serum and tumor kynurenine levels, with optimized PK including extended t1/2 to support once-daily oral dosing (17). Substantial reduction of serum kynurenine levels was achieved with 100-mg linrodostat once a day, with trough concentrations exceeding IC90 levels predicted in vitro to inhibit IDO1 (17). Linrodostat + nivolumab reduced immunosuppressive kynurenine in tumors and serum; however, directly correlating serum and intratumoral kynurenine reductions is difficult, as TDO2 expression varies across tumors (30). Furthermore, linrodostat boosts intratumoral cytotoxic T-cell populations (17, 31) recapitulating these in vitro data in clinical samples.
Despite the clinical activity observed with I-O therapies including anti–PD-1/programmed death ligand 1 and anti–CTLA-4, targeting immune checkpoint pathways alone may not provide sufficient clinical benefit in some patients (47). Various mechanisms of resistance in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment may limit these agents' activity, and additional strategies to reverse these suppression mechanisms are needed (47). IDO1 is a potential target to extend the I-O repertoire, as IDO1 gene expression is increased in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma treated with nivolumab (48, 49). Posttreatment increases in IDO1 expression are indicative of potential adaptive mechanisms of resistance to counteract increased antitumor immune cell activity potentiated by PD-1 pathway blockade. This increased IDO1 expression further supports that combination treatment could enhance antitumor activity by providing an additional mechanism to alleviate tumor-mediated immunosuppression, as observed with epacadostat treatment in preclinical models (50, 51). Furthermore, a combination of therapies that target PD-1, CTLA-4, and IDO1 has the potential to have synergistic therapeutic effects and may provide additional benefit versus regimens targeting only one or two of these immune-regulatory pathways (51). Using more potent IDO1 inhibitors may lead to more durable responses and better outcomes in patients, particularly when used in combination with other immunotherapy agents such as nivolumab and/or ipilimumab.
Linrodostat + nivolumab is currently being investigated in several studies including phase I/II studies in patients with advanced cancers (27), a phase II study in non–muscle-invasive bladder cancer (26), and a phase III study with neoadjuvant chemotherapy in muscle-invasive bladder cancer (25); however, epacadostat + pembrolizumab did not improve efficacy over placebo + pembrolizumab in a phase III study in melanoma (52) or in a phase II study in non–small cell lung cancer (53). Whether these results with epacadostat could translate to additional tumors is unknown. In addition, biomarkers could help identify patients who could benefit from IDO1 inhibitors in combination with I-O. Studies assessing components of the IDO1 pathway as potential predictive biomarkers to identify patients who are likely to respond to nivolumab + linrodostat treatment are underway; these studies may be critical to extend current I-O approaches to better inform patient treatment. Consistent with the mechanisms of action of nivolumab + linrodostat, an exploratory study found that low tumor TDO2 expression was associated with greater kynurenine reduction, and reduction to normal levels, in tumor and serum from patients with advanced cancers (30); furthermore, high IFNγ signature and low tumor TDO2 expression are associated with the highest response to nivolumab + linrodostat in I-O–naïve patients with solid tumors (30). Further investigation of these exploratory findings within the context of randomized clinical trials is warranted to evaluate the predictive value and establish clinical utility of this composite biomarker.
We have demonstrated that linrodostat is a potent and selective IDO1 inhibitor in vitro and in vivo. Linrodostat exhibits potent cellular activity through suppression of kynurenine production and restores T-cell proliferation in MLRs. Moreover, linrodostat is a potent IDO1 inhibitor with single-digit, nanomolar potency. Importantly, PK data presented here, in conjunction with clinical results, support dosing once a day for linrodostat. Through inhibition of the IDO1-mediated immunosuppressed tumor microenvironment, linrodostat is hypothesized to synergize with other immune-modulatory therapies to improve outcomes in patients with cancer. Results from ongoing pivotal studies of linrodostat + nivolumab will help define this combination's role in the treatment of cancer.
Authors’ Disclosures
A. Balog reports that he is an inventor on the patent WO2016073770 issued to Bristol Myers Squibb. J.T. Hunt reports other from Chrysalis during preparation of this manuscript. No disclosures were reported by the other authors.
Authors' Contributions
A. Balog: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. T.-a. Lin: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. D. Maley: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. J. Gullo-Brown: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. E.H. Kandoussi: Formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. J. Zeng: Formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing. J.T. Hunt: Conceptualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by Bristol Myers Squibb Company.
We thank the patients and their families who made this study possible and the clinical study teams who participated in this study. We thank Bristol Myers Squibb and ONO Pharmaceutical Company Ltd. We also thank the Immuno-Oncology Small Molecule In Vivo Pharmacology Team at Bristol Myers Squibb for collection of in vivo data. All authors contributed to and approved the work presented here; writing and editorial assistance was provided by Brittany L. Phillips, PhD, of Chrysalis Medical Communications, Inc., funded by Bristol Myers Squibb.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Footnotes
Note: Supplementary data for this article are available at Molecular Cancer Therapeutics Online (http://mct.aacrjournals.org/).
Mol Cancer Ther 2021;20:467–76
- Received April 3, 2020.
- Revision received September 11, 2020.
- Accepted December 2, 2020.
- Published first December 9, 2020.
- ©2020 American Association for Cancer Research.
References
Volume 20, Issue 3
